Contoh Surat Lamaran

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Posted by stev_mtl's BLOG | Posted on 21.47 | Posted in

Jl.Delima No.87
Jakarta


Phone : 021 -9876543
August 27th, 2009

Attention To:
Mr.Roni
PT. Selamat
Jl. Merdeka
jakarta

Dear Mr. Roni,


I am a graduate student in Computer Science at Indonesia University, and I will be awarded an M.S. degree in July 2007. I am currently looking for a position related to Database/Graphics Package Design in the research and development department of a major company.

Before coming to Indonesia University, I designed, supervised, and completed a CAD system. The function covers vector, character and curve generation, windowing, shading, and transformations.

At Indonesia University, my research work involves Compilation of Relational Queries into Network DML. To enhance my background, I have taken some courses in computer graphics and database, and I have experience in and an understanding of the design of databases. With this b background, I certainly believe that I am competent to meet challenging tasks and can make a good contribution to your company.

Enclosed is my resume, which indicates in some detail my training and experience. I sincerely hope that my qualifications are of interest to you and that an interview might be arranged at your convenience.

Thank you for your consideration. I look forward to hearing from you soon.

Sincerely yours,



Stefanus

A / An / The

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Posted by stev_mtl's BLOG | Posted on 21.43 | Posted in

Using Articles

What is an article? Basically, an article is an adjective. Like adjectives, articles modify nouns. English has two articles: the and a/an. The is used to refer to specific or particular nouns; a/an is used to modify non-specific or non-particular nouns. We call the the definite article and a/an the indefinite article.
the = definite article
a/an = indefinite article
For example, if I say, "Let's read the book," I mean a specific book. If I say, "Let's read a book," I mean any book rather than a specific book. Here's another way to explain it: The is used to refer to a specific or particular member of a group. For example, "I just saw the most popular movie of the year." There are many movies, but only one particular movie is the most popular. Therefore, we use the. "A/an" is used to refer to a non-specific or non-particular member of the group. For example, "I would like to go see a movie." Here, we're not talking about a specific movie. We're talking about any movie. There are many movies, and I want to see any movie. I don't have a specific one in mind. Let's look at each kind of article a little more closely.

Indefinite Articles: a and an

"A" and "an" signal that the noun modified is indefinite, referring to any member of a group. For example:
  • "My daughter really wants a dog for Christmas." This refers to any dog. We don't know which dog because we haven't found the dog yet.
  • "Somebody call a policeman!" This refers to any policeman. We don't need a specific policeman; we need any policeman who is available.
  • "When I was at the zoo, I saw an elephant!" Here, we're talking about a single, non-specific thing, in this case an elephant. There are probably several elephants at the zoo, but there's only one we're talking about here.

Remember, using a or an depends on the sound that begins the next word. So...

  • a + singular noun beginning with a consonant: a boy; a car; a bike; a zoo; a dog
  • an + singular noun beginning with a vowel: an elephant; an egg; an apple; an idiot; an orphan
  • a + singular noun beginning with a consonant sound: a user (sounds like 'yoo-zer,' i.e. begins with a consonant 'y' sound, so 'a' is used); a university; a unicycle
  • In some cases where "h" is pronounced, such as "historical," us an:
An historical event is worth recording.
In writing, "a historical event" is more commonly used.
Remember that this rule also applies when you use acronyms:
Introductory Composition at Purdue (ICaP) handles first-year writing at the University. Therefore, an ICaP memo generally discusses issues concerning English 106 instructors. Another case where this rule applies is when acronyms start with consonant letters but have vowel sounds:
An MSDS (material safety data sheet) was used to record the data. An SPCC plan (Spill Prevention Control and Countermeasures plan) will help us prepare for the worst. If the noun is modified by an adjective, the choice between a and an depends on the initial sound of the adjective that immediately follows the article:
  • a broken egg
  • an unusual problem
  • a European country (sounds like 'yer-o-pi-an,' i.e. begins with consonant 'y' sound)
Remember, too, that in English, the indefinite articles are used to indicate membership in a group:
  • I am a teacher. (I am a member of a large group known as teachers.)
  • Brian is an Irishman. (Brian is a member of the people known as Irish.)
  • Seiko is a practicing Buddhist. (Seiko is a member of the group of people known as Buddhists.)

Definite Article: the

The definite article is used before singular and plural nouns when the noun is specific or particular. The signals that the noun is definite, that it refers to a particular member of a group. For example:
"The dog that bit me ran away." Here, we're talking about a specific dog, the dog that bit me.
"I was happy to see the policeman who saved my cat!" Here, we're talking about a particular policeman. Even if we don't know the policeman's name, it's still a particular policeman because it is the one who saved the cat.
"I saw the elephant at the zoo." Here, we're talking about a specific noun. Probably there is only one elephant at the zoo.

Count and Noncount Nouns

The can be used with noncount nouns, or the article can be omitted entirely.
  • "I love to sail over the water" (some specific body of water) or "I love to sail over water" (any water).
  • "He spilled the milk all over the floor" (some specific milk, perhaps the milk you bought earlier that day) or "He spilled milk all over the floor" (any milk).
"A/an" can be used only with count nouns.
  • "I need a bottle of water."
  • "I need a new glass of milk."
Most of the time, you can't say, "She wants a water," unless you're implying, say, a bottle of water.

Geographical use of the

There are some specific rules for using the with geographical nouns. Do not use the before:
  • names of most countries/territories: Italy, Mexico, Bolivia; however, the Netherlands, the Dominican Republic, the Philippines, the United States
  • names of cities, towns, or states: Seoul, Manitoba, Miami
  • names of streets: Washington Blvd., Main St.
  • names of lakes and bays: Lake Titicaca, Lake Erie except with a group of lakes like the Great Lakes
  • names of mountains: Mount Everest, Mount Fuji except with ranges of mountains like the Andes or the Rockies or unusual names like the Matterhorn
  • names of continents (Asia, Europe)
  • names of islands (Easter Island, Maui, Key West) except with island chains like the Aleutians, the Hebrides, or the Canary Islands
Do use the before:
  • names of rivers, oceans and seas: the Nile, the Pacific
  • points on the globe: the Equator, the North Pole
  • geographical areas: the Middle East, the West
  • deserts, forests, gulfs, and peninsulas: the Sahara, the Persian Gulf, the Black Forest, the Iberian Peninsula

Omission of Articles

Some common types of nouns that don't take an article are:
  • Names of languages and nationalities: Chinese, English, Spanish, Russian
  • Names of sports: volleyball, hockey, baseball
  • Names of academic subjects: mathematics, biology, history, computer science

Pronouns

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Posted by stev_mtl's BLOG | Posted on 19.27 | Posted in

Personal Pronouns
Personal pronouns represent specific people or things. We use them depending on:
  • number: singular (eg: I) or plural (eg: we)
  • person: 1st person (eg: I), 2nd person (eg: you) or 3rd person (eg: he)
  • gender: male (eg: he), female (eg: she) or neuter (eg: it)
  • case: subject (eg: we) or object (eg: us)
We use personal pronouns in place of the person or people that we are talking about. My name is Josef but when I am talking about myself I almost always use "I" or "me", not "Josef". When I am talking direct to you, I almost always use "you", not your name. When I am talking about another person, say John, I may start with "John" but then use "he" or "him". And so on.
Here are the personal pronouns, followed by some example sentences:
numberpersongenderpersonal pronouns
subjectobject
singular1stmale/femaleIme
2ndmale/femaleyouyou
3rdmalehehim
femalesheher
neuteritit
plural1stmale/femaleweus
2ndmale/femaleyouyou
3rdmale/female/neutertheythem
Examples (in each case, the first example shows a subject pronoun, the second an object pronoun):
  • I like coffee.
  • John helped me.

  • Do you like coffee?
  • John loves you.

  • He runs fast.
  • Did Ram beat him?

  • She is clever.
  • Does Mary know her?

  • It doesn't work.
  • Can the engineer repair it?

  • We went home.
  • Anthony drove us.

  • Do you need a table for three?
  • Did John and Mary beat you at doubles?

  • They played doubles.
  • John and Mary beat them.
When we are talking about a single thing, we almost always use it. However, there are a few exceptions. We may sometimes refer to an animal as he/him or she/her, especially if the animal is domesticated or a pet. Ships (and some other vessels or vehicles) as well as some countries are often treated as female and referred to as she/her. Here are some examples:
  • This is our dog Rusty. He's an Alsation.
  • The Titanic was a great ship but she sank on her first voyage.
  • My first car was a Mini and I treated her like my wife.
  • Thailand has now opened her border with Cambodia.
For a single person, sometimes we don't know whether to use he or she. There are several solutions to this:
  • If a teacher needs help, he or she should see the principal.
  • If a teacher needs help, he should see the principal.
  • If a teacher needs help, they should see the principal.
We often use it to introduce a remark:
  • It is nice to have a holiday sometimes.
  • It is important to dress well.
  • It's difficult to find a job.
  • Is it normal to see them together?
  • It didn't take long to walk here.
We also often use it to talk about the weather, temperature, time and distance:
  • It's raining.
  • It will probably be hot tomorrow.
  • Is it nine o'clock yet?
  • It's 50 kilometres from here to Cambridge.

Demonstrative Pronouns

A demonstrative pronoun represents a thing or things:
  • near in distance or time (this, these)
  • far in distance or time (that, those)

nearfar
singularthisthat
pluralthesethose
Here are some examples with demonstrative pronouns, followed by an illustration:
  • This tastes good.
  • Have you seen this?
  • These are bad times.
  • Do you like these?

  • That is beautiful.
  • Look at that!
  • Those were the days!
  • Can you see those?

  • This is heavier than that.
  • These are bigger than those.

Possessive Pronouns

We use possessive pronouns to refer to a specific person/people or thing/things (the "antecedent") belonging to a person/people (and sometimes belonging to an animal/animals or thing/things).
We use possessive pronouns depending on:
  • number: singular (eg: mine) or plural (eg: ours)
  • person: 1st person (eg: mine), 2nd person (eg: yours) or 3rd person (eg: his)
  • gender: male (his), female (hers)
Below are the possessive pronouns, followed by some example sentences. Notice that each possessive pronoun can:
  • be subject or object
  • refer to a singular or plural antecedent
numberpersongender (of "owner") possessive pronouns
singular1stmale/femalemine
2ndmale/femaleyours
3rdmalehis
femalehers
plural1stmale/femaleours
2ndmale/femaleyours
3rdmale/female/neutertheirs
  • Look at these pictures. Mine is the big one. (subject = My picture)
  • I like your flowers. Do you like mine? (object = my flowers)

  • I looked everywhere for your key. I found John's key but I couldn't find yours. (object = your key)
  • My flowers are dying. Yours are lovely. (subject = Your flowers)

  • All the essays were good but his was the best. (subject = his essay)
  • John found his passport but Mary couldn't find hers. (object = her passport)
  • John found his clothes but Mary couldn't find hers. (object = her clothes)

  • Here is your car. Ours is over there, where we left it. (subject = Our car)
  • Your photos are good. Ours are terrible. (subject = Our photos)

  • Each couple's books are colour-coded. Yours are red. (subject = Your books)
  • I don't like this family's garden but I like yours. (subject = your garden)

  • These aren't John and Mary's children. Theirs have black hair. (subject = Their children)
  • John and Mary don't like your car. Do you like theirs? (object = their car)

Interrogative Pronouns

We use interrogative pronouns to ask questions. The interrogative pronoun represents the thing that we don't know (what we are asking the question about).
There are four main interrogative pronouns: who, whom, what, which
Notice that the possessive pronoun whose can also be an interrogative pronoun (an interrogative possessive pronoun).

subjectobject
personwhowhom
thingwhat
person/thingwhich
personwhose(possessive)

Look at these example questions. In the sample answers, the noun phrase that the interrogative pronoun represents is shown in bold.
questionanswer
Who told you? John told me. subject
Whom did you tell? I told Mary. object
What's happened? An accident's happened. subject
What do you want? I want coffee. object
Which came first? The Porsche 911 came first. subject
Which will the doctor see first? The doctor will see the patient in blue first. object
There's one car missing. Whose hasn't arrived? John's (car) hasn't arrived. subject
We've found everyone's keys. Whose did you find? I found John's (keys). object
Note that we sometimes use the suffix "-ever" to make compounds from some of these pronouns (mainly whoever, whatever, whichever). When we add "-ever", we use it for emphasis, often to show confusion or surprise. Look at these examples:
  • Whoever would want to do such a nasty thing?
  • Whatever did he say to make her cry like that?
  • They're all fantastic! Whichever will you choose?

Simple Past Tense and Present Perfect

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Posted by stev_mtl's BLOG | Posted on 19.11 | Posted in

Simple Past
FORM

[VERB+ed] or irregular verbs

Examples:

* You called Debbie.
* Did you call Debbie?
* You did not call Debbie.

Complete List of Simple Past Forms
USE 1 Completed Action in the Past

Use the Simple Past to express the idea that an action started and finished at a specific time in the past. Sometimes, the speaker may not actually mention the specific time, but they do have one specific time in mind.

Examples:

* I saw a movie yesterday.
* I didn't see a play yesterday.
* Last year, I traveled to Japan.
* Last year, I didn't travel to Korea.
* Did you have dinner last night?
* She washed her car.
* He didn't wash his car.

USE 2 A Series of Completed Actions

We use the Simple Past to list a series of completed actions in the past. These actions happen 1st, 2nd, 3rd, 4th, and so on.

Examples:

* I finished work, walked to the beach, and found a nice place to swim.
* He arrived from the airport at 8:00, checked into the hotel at 9:00, and met the others at 10:00.
* Did you add flour, pour in the milk, and then add the eggs?

USE 3 Duration in Past

The Simple Past can be used with a duration which starts and stops in the past. A duration is a longer action often indicated by expressions such as: for two years, for five minutes, all day, all year, etc.

Examples:

* I lived in Brazil for two years.
* Shauna studied Japanese for five years.
* They sat at the beach all day.
* They did not stay at the party the entire time.
* We talked on the phone for thirty minutes.
* A: How long did you wait for them?
B: We waited for one hour.

USE 4 Habits in the Past

The Simple Past can also be used to describe a habit which stopped in the past. It can have the same meaning as "used to." To make it clear that we are talking about a habit, we often add expressions such as: always, often, usually, never, when I was a child, when I was younger, etc.

Examples:

* I studied French when I was a child.
* He played the violin.
* He didn't play the piano.
* Did you play a musical instrument when you were a kid?
* She worked at the movie theater after school.
* They never went to school, they always skipped class.

USE 5 Past Facts or Generalizations

The Simple Past can also be used to describe past facts or generalizations which are no longer true. As in USE 4 above, this use of the Simple Past is quite similar to the expression "used to."

Examples:

* She was shy as a child, but now she is very outgoing.
* He didn't like tomatoes before.
* Did you live in Texas when you were a kid?
* People paid much more to make cell phone calls in the past.

IMPORTANT When-Clauses Happen First

Clauses are groups of words which have meaning but are often not complete sentences. Some clauses begin with the word "when" such as "when I dropped my pen..." or "when class began..." These clauses are called when-clauses, and they are very important. The examples below contain when-clauses.

Examples:

* When I paid her one dollar, she answered my question.
* She answered my question when I paid her one dollar.

When-clauses are important because they always happen first when both clauses are in the Simple Past. Both of the examples above mean the same thing: first, I paid her one dollar, and then, she answered my question. It is not important whether "when I paid her one dollar" is at the beginning of the sentence or at the end of the sentence. However, the example below has a different meaning. First, she answered my question, and then, I paid her one dollar.

Example:

* I paid her one dollar when she answered my question.

Present Perfect
FORM

[has/have + past participle]

Examples:

* You have seen that movie many times.
* Have you seen that movie many times?
* You have not seen that movie many times.

Complete List of Present Perfect Forms
USE 1 Unspecified Time Before Now

We use the Present Perfect to say that an action happened at an unspecified time before now. The exact time is not important. You CANNOT use the Present Perfect with specific time expressions such as: yesterday, one year ago, last week, when I was a child, when I lived in Japan, at that moment, that day, one day, etc. We CAN use the Present Perfect with unspecific expressions such as: ever, never, once, many times, several times, before, so far, already, yet, etc.

Examples:

* I have seen that movie twenty times.
* I think I have met him once before.
* There have been many earthquakes in California.
* People have traveled to the Moon.
* People have not traveled to Mars.
* Have you read the book yet?
* Nobody has ever climbed that mountain.
* A: Has there ever been a war in the United States?
B: Yes, there has been a war in the United States.

How Do You Actually Use the Present Perfect?

The concept of "unspecified time" can be very confusing to English learners. It is best to associate Present Perfect with the following topics:
TOPIC 1 Experience

You can use the Present Perfect to describe your experience. It is like saying, "I have the experience of..." You can also use this tense to say that you have never had a certain experience. The Present Perfect is NOT used to describe a specific event.

Examples:

* I have been to France.
This sentence means that you have had the experience of being in France. Maybe you have been there once, or several times.
* I have been to France three times.
You can add the number of times at the end of the sentence.
* I have never been to France.
This sentence means that you have not had the experience of going to France.
* I think I have seen that movie before.
* He has never traveled by train.
* Joan has studied two foreign languages.
* A: Have you ever met him?
B: No, I have not met him.

TOPIC 2 Change Over Time

We often use the Present Perfect to talk about change that has happened over a period of time.

Examples:

* You have grown since the last time I saw you.
* The government has become more interested in arts education.
* Japanese has become one of the most popular courses at the university since the Asian studies program was established.
* My English has really improved since I moved to Australia.

TOPIC 3 Accomplishments

We often use the Present Perfect to list the accomplishments of individuals and humanity. You cannot mention a specific time.

Examples:

* Man has walked on the Moon.
* Our son has learned how to read.
* Doctors have cured many deadly diseases.
* Scientists have split the atom.

TOPIC 4 An Uncompleted Action You Are Expecting

We often use the Present Perfect to say that an action which we expected has not happened. Using the Present Perfect suggests that we are still waiting for the action to happen.

Examples:

* James has not finished his homework yet.
* Susan hasn't mastered Japanese, but she can communicate.
* Bill has still not arrived.
* The rain hasn't stopped.

TOPIC 5 Multiple Actions at Different Times

We also use the Present Perfect to talk about several different actions which have occurred in the past at different times. Present Perfect suggests the process is not complete and more actions are possible.

Examples:

* The army has attacked that city five times.
* I have had four quizzes and five tests so far this semester.
* We have had many major problems while working on this project.
* She has talked to several specialists about her problem, but nobody knows why she is sick.

Time Expressions with Present Perfect

When we use the Present Perfect it means that something has happened at some point in our lives before now. Remember, the exact time the action happened is not important.

Sometimes, we want to limit the time we are looking in for an experience. We can do this with expressions such as: in the last week, in the last year, this week, this month, so far, up to now, etc.

Examples:

* Have you been to Mexico in the last year?
* I have seen that movie six times in the last month.
* They have had three tests in the last week.
* She graduated from university less than three years ago. She has worked for three different companies so far.
* My car has broken down three times this week.

NOTICE

"Last year" and "in the last year" are very different in meaning. "Last year" means the year before now, and it is considered a specific time which requires Simple Past. "In the last year" means from 365 days ago until now. It is not considered a specific time, so it requires Present Perfect.

Examples:

* I went to Mexico last year.
I went to Mexico in the calendar year before this one.
* I have been to Mexico in the last year.
I have been to Mexico at least once at some point between 365 days ago and now.

USE 2 Duration From the Past Until Now (Non-Continuous Verbs)

With Non-Continuous Verbs and non-continuous uses of Mixed Verbs, we use the Present Perfect to show that something started in the past and has continued up until now. "For five minutes," "for two weeks," and "since Tuesday" are all durations which can be used with the Present Perfect.

Examples:

* I have had a cold for two weeks.
* She has been in England for six months.
* Mary has loved chocolate since she was a little girl.

Although the above use of Present Perfect is normally limited to Non-Continuous Verbs and non-continuous uses of Mixed Verbs, the words "live," "work," "teach," and "study" are sometimes used in this way even though they are NOT Non-Continuous Verbs.

Simple Present Tense and Simple Present Progressive

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Posted by stev_mtl's BLOG | Posted on 19.04 | Posted in

Simple Present
FORM

[VERB] + s/es in third person

Examples:

* You speak English.
* Do you speak English?
* You do not speak English.

Complete List of Simple Present Forms
USE 1 Repeated Actions

Use the Simple Present to express the idea that an action is repeated or usual. The action can be a habit, a hobby, a daily event, a scheduled event or something that often happens. It can also be something a person often forgets or usually does not do.

Examples:

* I play tennis.
* She does not play tennis.
* Does he play tennis?
* The train leaves every morning at 8 AM.
* The train does not leave at 9 AM.
* When does the train usually leave?
* She always forgets her purse.
* He never forgets his wallet.
* Every twelve months, the Earth circles the Sun.
* Does the Sun circle the Earth?

USE 2 Facts or Generalizations

The Simple Present can also indicate the speaker believes that a fact was true before, is true now, and will be true in the future. It is not important if the speaker is correct about the fact. It is also used to make generalizations about people or things.

Examples:

* Cats like milk.
* Birds do not like milk.
* Do pigs like milk?
* California is in America.
* California is not in the United Kingdom.
* Windows are made of glass.
* Windows are not made of wood.
* New York is a small city. It is not important that this fact is untrue.

USE 3 Scheduled Events in the Near Future

Speakers occasionally use Simple Present to talk about scheduled events in the near future. This is most commonly done when talking about public transportation, but it can be used with other scheduled events as well.

Examples:

* The train leaves tonight at 6 PM.
* The bus does not arrive at 11 AM, it arrives at 11 PM.
* When do we board the plane?
* The party starts at 8 o'clock.
* When does class begin tomorrow?

USE 4 Now (Non-Continuous Verbs)

Speakers sometimes use the Simple Present to express the idea that an action is happening or is not happening now. This can only be done with Non-Continuous Verbs and certain Mixed Verbs.

Examples:

* I am here now.
* She is not here now.
* He needs help right now.
* He does not need help now.
* He has his passport in his hand.
* Do you have your passport with you?

Present Continuous
FORM

[am/is/are + present participle]

Examples:

* You are watching TV.
* Are you watching TV?
* You are not watching TV.

Complete List of Present Continuous Forms
USE 1 Now

Use the Present Continuous with Normal Verbs to express the idea that something is happening now, at this very moment. It can also be used to show that something is not happening now.

Examples:

* You are learning English now.
* You are not swimming now.
* Are you sleeping?
* I am sitting.
* I am not standing.
* Is he sitting or standing?
* They are reading their books.
* They are not watching television.
* What are you doing?
* Why aren't you doing your homework?

USE 2 Longer Actions in Progress Now

In English, "now" can mean: this second, today, this month, this year, this century, and so on. Sometimes, we use the Present Continuous to say that we are in the process of doing a longer action which is in progress; however, we might not be doing it at this exact second.

Examples: (All of these sentences can be said while eating dinner in a restaurant.)

* I am studying to become a doctor.
* I am not studying to become a dentist.
* I am reading the book Tom Sawyer.
* I am not reading any books right now.
* Are you working on any special projects at work?
* Aren't you teaching at the university now?

USE 3 Near Future

Sometimes, speakers use the Present Continuous to indicate that something will or will not happen in the near future.

Examples:

* I am meeting some friends after work.
* I am not going to the party tonight.
* Is he visiting his parents next weekend?
* Isn't he coming with us tonight?

USE 4 Repetition and Irritation with "Always"

The Present Continuous with words such as "always" or "constantly" expresses the idea that something irritating or shocking often happens. Notice that the meaning is like Simple Present, but with negative emotion. Remember to put the words "always" or "constantly" between "be" and "verb+ing."

Examples:

* She is always coming to class late.
* He is constantly talking. I wish he would shut up.
* I don't like them because they are always complaining.

REMEMBER Non-Continuous Verbs/ Mixed Verbs

It is important to remember that Non-Continuous Verbs cannot be used in any continuous tenses. Also, certain non-continuous meanings for Mixed Verbs cannot be used in continuous tenses. Instead of using Present Continuous with these verbs, you must use Simple Present.

Examples:

* She is loving this chocolate ice cream. Not Correct
* She loves this chocolate ice cream. Correct

JARKOM LANJUT - FRAME RELAY , X25 dan MULTIPLEXING

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Posted by stev_mtl's BLOG | Posted on 18.30 | Posted in


Frame Relay merupakan layanan jasa jaringan komunikasi data dengan teknologi Frame switching yang berkecepatan tinggi untuk menghubungkan satu atau beberapa lokasi ke berbagai lokasi tujuan (point to multi point) baik di dalam ataupun luar negeri.Koneksi LAN to LAN dengan berbagai aplikasi voice, multimedia, video conference dan aplikasi berbasis client-server / telnet / terminal emulation dengan sentralisasi database yang mencakup

  1. File transfer
  2. Email
  3. Web Intranet
  4. Data entry
  5. Pengendalian persediaan
  6. Payment point
  7. Corporate Internet dedicated



  


Aplikasi transaksional dan interaktif yang mencakup:

  1. Online antar cabang
  2. Reservasi hotel/tiket pesawat

Jaringan Frame Relay

 1.Topology Star atau disebut Hub and Spoke topology

Frame Relay - Hub and Spoke


Frame Relay - Hub and Spoke

Topology Hub and Spoke adalah jaringan frame relay yang paling banyak dipakai dikarenakan pemakaian virtual circuit paling sedikit untuk menghubungkan hanya dua atau beberapa kantor atau site saja. Konfigurasi router bisa melibatkan pemakaian interface Multipoint ataupun Point-to-Point Sub-interface untuk mendifinisikan topology jaringan frame relay.
Diagram diatas merupakan topology jaringan frame relay Hub and Spoke yang merupakan jaringan Point-to-Point circuit tersendiri untuk setiap masing-2 kantor cabang atau setiap site yang terhubung dengan kantor pusat. Model ini merupakan model paling ekonomis yang bisa anda pakai untuk menghubungkan antar site anda.



2.Topology jaringan Frame relay Full-Mesh

Frame Relay Network - Full Mesh

Frame Relay Network - Full Mesh

Diagram ini merupakan topology jaringan frame relay Full-Mesh dimana setiap masing-2 kantor / site mempunyai jaringan Point-to-Point circuit tersendiri yang menghubungkan setiap kantor yang berbeda. Model ini adalah model yang paling mahal dalam jaringan frame relay karena kita harus menyewa setiap circuit (CIR) yang kita pakai.




3.Topology Partial-Mesh

Frame Relay Network - Partial Mesh

Frame Relay Network - Partial Mesh

Diagram ini merupakan topology jaringan frame relay Partial-Mesh yang merupakan solusi frame relay lebih ekonomis dari topology Full-Mesh. Jadi hanya beberapa kantor / site saja yang mempunyai jaringan koneksi langsung antar kantor, sementara kantor / site lain tidak secara langsung terhubung.
Jaringan frame relay Sub-Interface memungkinkan kita memakai satu interface fisik router yang sama untuk beberapa virtual circuit. Hal ini merupakan penghematan yang sangat besar dalam menyediakan suatu interface tunggal yang bisa dipakai untuk beberapa koneksi WAN. Hal ini juga bisa mengatasi berbagai masalah koneksi yang berhubungan dengan operasi normal dari protocol routing dinamis.




Frame Relay Network - Sub-Interface

Frame Relay Network - Sub-Interface

Kesalahan konfigurasi jaringan frame relay dapat menyebabkan berbagai masalah yang berhubungan dengan jaringan. Beberapa masalah ini bisa diatasi hanya dengan mengikuti petunjuk dasar konfigurasi. Jika suatu jaringan frame relay mengalami banyak munculnya pesan notifikasi adanya kenaikan kongesi (red. membludaknya data transmisi) atau terasa lambatnya performa jaringan secara terus menerus, maka perlu diadakan kajian atas kebutuhan bandwidth circuit WAN yang mungkin perlu dinaikkan. Atau bahkan perlu pengkajian kalau saja ada masalah dengan design system anda yang menyebabkan mampetnya jalur circuit anda.
Berikut ini adalah tugas umum yang perlu dilakukan dalam konfigurasi jaringan frame relay.
1. Enable jaringan frame relay pada interface (serial S0 ataupun S1 dari router anda) dengan cara memilih jenis “Encapsulation type”
2. Memberikan address network layer pada interface seperti IP address interface S0 atau S1
3. Mengkonfigurasi address dynamic (menggunakan “inverse arp”) ataupun address statis (mapped interface)
4. Untuk sub-interface Point-to-Point, atau sub-interface Multi-point dengan menggunakan dynamic address, gunakan DLCI pada sub-interface
5. Untuk setting opsional gunakan LMI setting

Catatan: secara default router Cisco melakukan autosensing jenis LMI yang dipakai dan melakukan konfigurasi sesuai jenis LMI seperlunya.  Anda perlu melakukan setting LMI jika router gagal melakukan autosensing atau anda perlu melakukan setting manual.

Yang berikut adalah step untuk konfigurasi jaringan Frame relay:
Cisco command
 Keterangan
Router (config-if) # encap frame
 Enable jaringan frame relay dan setting metoda “encapsulation type”
Router (config-if) # ip address 10.0.0.1 255.0.0.0
 Memberikan suatu address network layer pada interface yang dipilih
Router (config-if) # frame inverse-arp
Atau melakukan static address
Router (config-if) # frame map ip 10.0.0.3 100
 Enable inverse-arp (jika kondisi ‘disable’) atau melakukan pemetaan manual ke nomor DLCI
Router (config-if) # frame lmi-type cisco
Router (config-if) # keepalive 9
 Konfigurasi jenis LMI

Konfigurasi serial sub-interface: Point-to-Point
Untuk melengkapi interface Point-to-Point anda bisa melakukan step berikut:
Cisco command
 Keterangan
Router (config-if) # encap frame
 Enable jaringan frame relay dan setting metoda “encapsulation type”
Router (config-if) # int s0.1 point
 Membuat sub-interface pada serial s0 dan memberikan identitas  interface Point-to-point
Router (config-subif) # ip address 11.0.0.1 255.0.0.0
 Memberikan address network layer
Router (config-subif) # frame interface-dlci 100
 Konfigurasi jenis addressing static ataupun dynamic
Catatan: untuk sub-interface Point-to-Point ataupun sub-interface multi-point dengan addressing dynamic, anda juga harus memberikan suatu nomor DLCI pada sub-interface.

Konfigurasi sub-interface Multi-point
Step berikut adalah konfigurasi jaringan frame relay serial sub-interface multi-point
Cisco command
 Keterangan
Router (config-if) # encap frame
 Enable jaringan frame relay dan setting metoda “encapsulation type”
Router (config-if) # int s0.100 multipoint
 Membuat sub-interface dan mengidentifikasikan interface multipoint.
Router (config-subif) # ip address 13.0.0.1 255.0.0.0
 Memberikan address network layer
Router (config-subif) # frame interface-dlci 300
Atau konfigurasi static address
Router (config-subif) # frame map ip 13.0.0.3 300
 Konfigurasi static ataupun dynamic addressing (DLCI untuk untuk inverse-arp)
Catatan: untuk sub-interface point-to-point atau multi-point dengan dynamic addressing, anda harus juga memberikan DLCI number pada sub-interface.

Konfigurasi jaringan frame relay back-to-back
Pada seksi sebelumnya dijelaskan router connect pada jaringan frame relay yang sudah ada dan router di konfigurasi sebagai DTE dengan DCE nya adalah frame relay switch di jaringan Telkom penyedia frame relay di central office. Anda bisa configure Cisco router sebagai DCE dalam suatu scenario jaringan frame relay back-to-back untuk keperluan testing.
Lengkapi step berikut untuk konfigurasi dua router yang dihubungkan back-to-back menggunakan jaringan frame relay.
1.       Hubungkan kedua router dengan kabel yang benar, gunakan kabel DTE pada satu router dan kabel DCE untuk kabel router satunya atau gunakan saja suatu kabel DTE/DCE crossover cable.
2.      Pada modus interface, set “clock rate” pada interface router yang berfungsi sebagai DCE.
3.      Lengkapi konfigurasi item-2 berikut untuk setiap interface yang terhubung.
a.      Enable jaringan frame relay dan set metoda “encapsulation”
b.      Berikan addressing network layer
c.       Matikan “keep-alive” interval
d.      Petakan address pada DLCI (gunakan DLCI yang sama untuk keduanya) atau berikan DLCI number pada interface (gunakan DLCI yang sama untuk keduanya)
Command-2 berikut digunakan untuk konfigurasi kedua router untuk setiap interface terhubung.
RouterD (config) # int s0
RouterD (config-if) # encap frame
RouterD (config-if) # ip address 10.0.0.1 255.0.0.0
RouterD (config-if) # no keepalive
RouterD (config-if) # frame map ip 10.0.0.2 100
RouterD (config-if) # clock rate 56000
RouterE (config) # int s0
RouterE (config-if) # encap frame
RouterE (config-if) # ip address 10.0.0.2 255.0.0.0
RouterE (config-if) # no keepalive
RouterE (config-if) # frame map ip 10.0.0.1 100
Anda juga bisa menggantikan command berikut untuk command frame-relay map untuk kedua router Frame-relay interface-dlci 100

Cara monitoring jaringan frame relay
Seteah jaringan frame relay sudah diconfigure, anda bisa menggunakan beberapa command untuk memonitor atau melihat konfigurasi jaringan frame relay anda pada router. Sebagai tambahan command #show run, gunakan command-2 berikut untuk melihat informasi jaringan frame relay.

Jika anda ingin melihat
 Gunakan command berikut
DLCI numbers
 Show run Show frame pvc
Frame relay network encapsulation method
 Show int Show run
Interface configuration (DCE or DTE)
 Show frame pvc Show int
LMI information and traffic statistics
 Show frame lmi Show int
Global traffic statistic
 Show frame traffic
Addresses and associated DLCIs
 Show frame map


X.25 Protocol

Adalah standar jaringan packet switching yang disetujui pada 1976 oleh CCITT (sekarang ITU). Standar ini mendefinisikan layers 1, 2, and 3 Model Referensi OSI.

Pada 1970 an ada banyak jaringan telekomunikasi publik yang dimiliki oleh perusahaan, organisasi dan pemerintahan yang saling berbeda satu sama lain sehingga diperlukan protocol yang lebih umum untuk menggabungkan semua standar industri tersebut.

Pada 1976 X.25 direkomendasikan sebagai protocol yang dimaksud oleh The International Consultative Committee for Telegraphy and Telephony (CCITT) sekarang International Telecommunication Union (ITU) sejak 1993.

X.25 adalah packet switched data network protocol yang mendefinisikan secara internasional bagaimana cara melakukan data exchange dan information control antara user device (host), disebut Data Terminal Equipment (DTE) dan network node, disebut Data Circuit Terminating Equipment (DCE).

X.25 adalah Connection Oriented service yang memastikan paket ditransmisikan berurutan.

X.25 mengacu pada tiga layer pertama Open Systems Interconnection(OSI) dalam arsitektur 7 Later yang ditetapkan oleh International Standard Organization (ISO).

1. Physical Level adalah interface secara fisik. Sesuai dengan Physical Layer pada OSI model
2. The Link Level bertanggung jawab terhadap komunikasi antara DTE dan DCE. Sesuai dengan Data Link Layer pada OSI model
3. The Packet Level mendeskripsikan data transfer protocol pada packet switched network. Sesuai dengan Network Layer pada OSI model.

X.25 disetujui pada 1976 dan direvisi pada 1977, 1980, 1984, 1988 and 1992. Saat ini digunakan sebagai interfaces data communication networks terluas di seluruh dunia.

Packet Switching

Adalah protocol yang mengatur data dibagi menjadi sejumlah paket sebelum dikirimkan. Setiap paket akan dikirimkan terpisah dan dapat melalui saluran (routing) yang berbeda. Setelah semua paket dapat diterima oleh host tujuan, protocol menyusun kembali sehingga bisa ditampilkan utuh seperti semula.

Sebagian besar Wide Area Network (WAN) protocol modern, termasuk TCP/IP, X.25 dan Frame Relay, berbasis teknologi packet switching. Sedangkan layanan telepon umumnya berbasis jaringan teknologi circuit switching.

Umumnya dedicated line dialokasikan untuk transmisi antara dua pihak. Circuit switching ideal untuk kondisi dimana data harus dikirim secepatnya dan harus sampai dengan urutan yang sama. Misalnya untuk real time data (live audio dan video). Packet switching lebih efisien untuk jenis data yang dapat mentoleransi transmisi yang tertunda dan terpisah (tidak bersamaan) seperti misalnya e-mail dan Web.

Teknologi yang lebih baru, ATM, mengkombinasikan keduanya. Mampu memberikan garansi akurasi seperti jaringan circuit switched dan efisiensi dari jaringan packet switching.

Kesimpulan

X.25 adalah protocol telekomunikasi jaringan packet switched yang sampai saat ini masih sangat banyak dipergunakan di seluruh dunia. Salah satu aplikasinya adalah Frame Relay. Jaringan ini merupakan satu protocol utama akses Internet di seluruh dunia.

Dalam elektronik, telekomunikasi, dan jaringan komputer, multipleksing adalah istilah yang digunakan untuk menunjuk ke sebuah proses di mana beberapa sinyal pesan analog atau aliran data digital digabungkan menjadi satu sinyal. Tujuannya adalah untuk berbagi sumber daya yang mahal. Contohnya, dalam elektronik, multipleksing mengijinkan beberapa sinyal analog untuk diproses oleh satu analog-to-digital converter (ADC), dan dalam telekomunikasi, beberapa panggilan telepon dapat disalurkan menggunakan satu kabel.
Dalam komunikasi, sinyal yang telah dimultipleks disalurkan ke sebuah saluran komunikasi, yang mungkn juga merupakan medium transmisi fisik. Multipleksing membagi kapasitas saluran komunikasi tingkat-rendah menjadi beberapa saluran logik tingkat-tinggi, masing-masing satu untuk setiap sinyal pesan atau aliran data yang ingin disalurkan. Sebuah proses kebalikannya, dikenal dengan demultipleksing, dapat mengubah data asli di sisi penerima.
Sebuah alat yang melakukan multipleksing disebut multiplekser (MUX) dan alat yang melakukan proses yang berlawanan disebut demultiplekser, (DEMUX).
Bentuk paling dasar dari multipleksing adalah time-division multipleksing (TDM) dan frequency-division multiplexing (FDM).
Dalam komunikasi optik, FDM sering disebut sebagai wavelength-division multiplexing (WDM).
Multiplexing adalah suatu teknik mengirimkan lebih dari satu (:banyak) informasi melalui satu saluran. Istilah ini adalah istilah dalam dunia telekomunikasi. Tujuan utamanya adalah untuk menghemat jumlah saluran fisik misalnya kabel, pemancar & penerima (transceiver), atau kabel optik. Contoh aplikasi dari teknik multiplexing ini adalah pada jaringan transmisi jarak jauh, baik yang menggunakan kabel maupun yang menggunakan media udara (wireless atau radio). Sebagai contoh, satu helai kabel optik Surabaya-Jakarta bisa dipakai untuk menyalurkan ribuan percakapan telepon. Idenya adalah bagaimana menggabungkan ribuan informasi percakapan (voice) yang berasal dari ribuan pelanggan telepon tanpa saling bercampur satu sama lain.
Teknik multiplexing ada beberapa cara. Yang pertama, multiplexing dengan cara menata tiap informasi (suara percakapan 1 pelanggan) sedemikian rupa sehingga menempati satu alokasi frekuensi selebar sekitar 4 kHz. Teknik ini dinamakan Frequency Division Multiplexing (FDM). Teknologi ini digunakan di Indonesia hingga tahun 90-an pada jaringan telepon analog dan sistem satelit analog sebelum digantikan dengan teknologi digital.
Pada tahun 2000-an ini, ide dasar FDM digunakan dalam teknologi saluran pelanggan digital yang dikenal dengan modem ADSL (asymetric digital subscriber loop).
Yang kedua adalah multiplexing dengan cara tiap pelanggan menggunakan saluran secara bergantian. Teknik ini dinamakan Time Division Multiplexing (TDM). Tiap pelanggan diberi jatah waktu (time slot) tertentu sedemikian rupa sehingga semua informasi percakapan bisa dikirim melalui satu saluran secara bersama-sama tanpa disadari oleh pelanggan bahwa mereka sebenarnya bergantian menggunakan saluran. Kenapa si pelanggan tidak merasakan pergantian itu? Karena pergantiannya terjadi setiap 125 microsecond; berapapun jumlah pelanggan atau informasi yang ingin di-multiplex, setiap pelanggan akan mendapatkan giliran setiap 125 microsecond, hanya jatah waktunya semakin cepat.
Teknik multiplexing yang ketiga adalah yang digunakan dalam saluran kabel optik yang disebut Wavelength Division Multiplexing (WDM), yaitu satu kabel optik dipakai untuk menyalurkan lebih dari satu sumber sinar dimana satu sinar dengan lamda tertentu mewakili satu sumber informasi.

Kesalahan Yang terjadi pada Penerapan Security

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Posted by stev_mtl's BLOG | Posted on 16.53 | Posted in

Kesalahan Yang terjadi Pada Penerapan Security


Disini akan saya sharing sedikit survey yang telah di lakukan oleh Sans Institute dan saran dari Bruce Schneier yang merupakan salah satu bos dari Counterpane Internet Security.

Pertama sekali kita anda lihat tentang kesalahan terbesar dari IT department, mengapa sampai security implementasi dapat gagal di suatu perusahaan :

1. Menghubungkan system perusahaan anda ke Internet sebelum melakukan implementasi security dari sisi equipment hardware maupun software.
2. Menghubungkan suatu system yang dalam kondisi testing ke internet dengan default configuration.
3. Tidak mengadakan update terhadap system yang memiliki hole. (cth, service pack dari produk Microsoft)
4. Menggunakan telnet dan protocol lainnya untuk memanage suatu system tanpa enkripsi.
5. Tidak melakukan maintenace system dan back up data yang teratur.
6. Memberikan password kepada user melalui telpon, atau melakukan perubahan password langsung via telpon ataupun user melakukan perubahan password
7. sendiri tanpa melalui protokol authentication yang dapat diandalkan.
8. Menggunakan services yang tidak diperlukan contohnya telnet atau ftp.
9. Mengimplementasikan firewall tanpa "rule" yang benar, misalnya untuk menhentikan suatu request yang sesuai ciri-ciri worm atau network traffic yang
10. berbahaya(DoS).
11. Kegagalan dalam mengimplementasikan software update untuk anti virus.
12. Kegagalan dalam melakukan edukasi/training terhadap user mengenai security yang mereka hadapi.


Dan kesalahan paling besar yang biasa dilakukan oleh BOS anda atau anda sendiri yang menjadi executivenya, adalah :

1. Memberikan pekerjaan untuk menghandle security kepada orang/staff yang sama sekali tidak pernah ditranining atau memiliki pengetahuan mengenai security.
2. Tidak mengerti mengenai hubungan antara information security dan masalah dalam bisnis.Bisanya hanya melihat physical security tetapi tidak tahu mengenai
3. konsekuensi tentang information security yang hancur lebur. Kebanyakan konsep atau NATO (not action talk only)
4. Terlalu bergantung terhadap firewall.
5. Gagal dalam implementasi operasional security. Perbaikan atau system maintenance tidak berlanjut, hanya dilakukan pada tahap-tahap awal saja.
6. Tidak menyadari aset yang dimiliki perusahaan, tentang berapa tinggi nilai yang harus dilindungi.
7. Menganggap bahwa masalah yang terjadi akan selesai dengan cara mengacuhkannya.


Solusi apa yang di sarankan oleh Bruce Schneier dalam menghadapi keadaan tsb atau tindakan prevensi yang harus dilakukan untuk meningkatkan security di perusahaan anda.

1. Penggunaan firewall ( konfigurasi yang harus terus di monitoring, install update security dari vendor untuk meyakinkan bahwa security hole dapat tetap diblok)
2. Menggunakan PKI
3. Enkripsi.
4. Anti-Virus
5. VPNs (virtual private network)
6. Physical Security dengan menggunakan kartu akses atau lainnya
7. User training dan security prosedur yang jelas sehingga user dapat lebih mengerti peran mereka.
8. IDS (Intrusion Detection System) dan log file yang perlu di review.
9. Security monitoring.

streaming audio-video

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Posted by stev_mtl's BLOG | Posted on 00.09 | Posted in

Dalam jaman saat ini yang sudah sanggat modern sudah sangat membantu setiap orang untuk berinteraksi melakukan apapun yang di ingginkan karena hampir tidak ada yang tidak dapat diperoleh oleh kemajuan teknologi.
Salah satu contoh keunggulan teknologi yang ada saat ini yaitu streaming. Definisi dari streaming adalah teknik untuk mengirim file dari satu device ke device lain yang berjalan secara terus menurus sehingga user di device tujuan bisa menjalankan file yang dikirim dengan tidak menunggu semua file dari tempat asal selesai dikirimkan.

Proses streaming membutuhkan bandwith yang besar, karena data audio dan video biasanya memiliki ukuran yang besar. Dengan kondisi bandwidth yang terbatas proses streaming sulit diimplementasikan. Oleh karena itu dibutuhkan solusi yang bisa melakukan streaming pada bandwidth yang terbatas.

Salah satu solusi yang memungkinkan yaitu dengan menggunakan metode kompresi ke dalam data yang akan distreaming. Kompresi dilakukan menggunakan metode kuantisasi vektor dengan menggunakan algoritma Fair Share Amount.

Streaming juga mengimplementasikan teknologi UPnP (Universal Plug And Play) sehingga proses streaming bisa diautomatisasi tanpa perlu mengetahui address pada device - device yang terhubung.

Source streaming disebut dengan device sedangkan tujuan streaming disebut dengan control point. Berdasarkan hasil uji coba menunjukan bahwa dengan menggunakan arsitektur UPnP, aplikasi video streaming terkompresi menggunakan metode quantisasi vektor dengan algoritma FSA bisa diterapkan dengan baik serta prosentase kompresi yang dihasilkan dengan metode ini mencapai 75,8 % sampai 85 % dari file aslinya.

Pada teknologi Streaming maka kita mengenal dengan RTP (Real Time Protokol) yang merupakan protokol yangdibuat untuk mengkompensasi jitter dan desequencing yang terjadi pada jaringan IP yang berfungsi untuk mengurutkan paket data dan mendeteksi apakah ada paket data yang hilang.

Pada proses kerja RTP biasanya bekerja sama dengan RTCP (Real Time Control Protocol) yang berfungsi untuk mengirimkan paket control pada saat terminal yang berpartisipasi pada percakapan sebagai informasi yang berkualitas transmisi pada jaringan data yang dikirimkan, pengecekan headstamp pada header RTP dan memastikan datanya tepat dengan headstampnya, sebenarnya tugas utama RTCP adalah menyediakan feedback terhadap kualitas layanan yang disediakan oleh RTP sebagai protokol transport.


GbU


selamat membaca dan mempelajari



other and anohter

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Posted by stev_mtl's BLOG | Posted on 00.06 | Posted in

Other is an adjective meaning 'different' and is used as follows :

- This car park is closed but the other car park is open.
- Some children learn quickly but other children need more time.

◊ Other can also be used as a pronoun to refer to things or people.

- 80% of the students arrive on time.
- The others ( = the other students) are always late.

◊ Another expresses quantity, something extra or additional.

- There are 6 people for dinner but there are only 5 plates.
We need another plate

Determiners and articels

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Posted by stev_mtl's BLOG | Posted on 00.05 | Posted in

Articles, determiners, and quantifiers are those little words that precede and modify nouns:

the teacher, a college, a bit of honey, that person, those people, whatever purpose, either way, your choice

Sometimes these words will tell the reader or listener whether we're referring to a specific or general thing (the garage out back; A horse! A horse! My kingdom for a horse!); sometimes they tell how much or how many (lots of trees, several books, a great deal of confusion). The choice of the proper article or determiner to precede a noun or noun phrase is usually not a problem for writers who have grown up speaking English, nor is it a serious problem for non-native writers whose first language is a romance language such as Spanish. For other writers, though, this can be a considerable obstacle on the way to their mastery of English. In fact, some students from eastern European countries — where their native language has either no articles or an altogether different system of choosing articles and determiners — find that these "little words" can create problems long after every other aspect of English has been mastered.

Determiners are said to "mark" nouns. That is to say, you know a determiner will be followed by a noun. Some categories of determiners are limited (there are only three articles, a handful of possessive pronouns, etc.), but the possessive nouns are as limitless as nouns themselves. This limited nature of most determiner categories, however, explains why determiners are grouped apart from adjectives even though both serve a modifying function. We can imagine that the language will never tire of inventing new adjectives; the determiners (except for those possessive nouns), on the other hand, are well established, and this class of words is not going to grow in number. These categories of determiners are as follows: the articles (an, a, the — see below; possessive nouns (Joe's, the priest's, my mother's); possessive pronouns, (his, your, their, whose, etc.); numbers (one, two, etc.); indefinite pronouns (few, more, each, every, either, all, both, some, any, etc.); and demonstrative pronouns. The demonstratives (this, that, these, those, such) are discussed in the section on Demonstrative Pronouns. Notice that the possessive nouns differ from the other determiners in that they, themselves, are often accompanied by other determiners: "my mother's rug," "the priests's collar," "a dog's life."

This categorization of determiners is based on Understanding English Grammar by Martha Kolln. 4rth Edition. MacMillan Publishing Company: New York. 1994.

Some Notes on Quantifiers

Like articles, quantifiers are words that precede and modify nouns. They tell us how many or how much. Selecting the correct quantifier depends on your understanding the distinction between Count and Non-Count Nouns. For our purposes, we will choose the count noun trees and the non-count noun dancing:

#The following quantifiers will work with count nouns:

many trees
a few trees
few trees
several trees
a couple of trees
none of the trees

#The following quantifiers will work with non-count nouns:

not much dancing
a little dancing
little dancing
a bit of dancing
a good deal of dancing
a great deal of dancing
no dancing

#The following quantifiers will work with both count and non-count nouns:
all of the trees/dancing
some trees/dancing
most of the trees/dancing
enough trees/dancing
a lot of trees/dancing
lots of trees/dancing
plenty of trees/dancing
a lack of trees/dancing

In formal academic writing, it is usually better to use many and much rather than phrases such as a lot of, lots of and plenty of.

There is an important difference between "a little" and "little" (used with non-count words) and between "a few" and "few" (used with count words). If I say that Tashonda has a little experience in management that means that although Tashonda is no great expert she does have some experience and that experience might well be enough for our purposes. If I say that Tashonda has little experience in management that means that she doesn't have enough experience. If I say that Charlie owns a few books on Latin American literature that means that he has some some books — not a lot of books, but probably enough for our purposes. If I say that Charlie owns few books on Latin American literature, that means he doesn't have enough for our purposes and we'd better go to the library.

Unless it is combined with of, the quantifier "much" is reserved for questions and negative statements:

* Much of the snow has already melted.
* How much snow fell yesterday?
* Not much.

Note that the quantifier "most of the" must include the definite article the when it modifies a specific noun, whether it's a count or a non-count noun: "most of the instructors at this college have a doctorate"; "most of the water has evaporated." With a general plural noun, however (when you are not referring to a specific entity), the "of the" is dropped:

* Most colleges have their own admissions policy.
* Most students apply to several colleges.

Authority for this last paragraph: The Scott, Foresman Handbook for Writers by Maxine Hairston and John J. Ruszkiewicz. 4th ed. HarperCollins: New York. 1996. Examples our own.

An indefinite article is sometimes used in conjunction with the quantifier many, thus joining a plural quantifier with a singular noun (which then takes a singular verb):

* Many a young man has fallen in love with her golden hair.
* Many an apple has fallen by October.

This construction lends itself to a somewhat literary effect (some would say a stuffy or archaic effect) and is best used sparingly, if at all.



The articels

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Posted by stev_mtl's BLOG | Posted on 00.04 | Posted in

The three articles — a, an, the — are a kind of adjective. The is called the definite article because it usually precedes a specific or previously mentioned noun; a and an are called indefinite articles because they are used to refer to something in a less specific manner (an unspecified count noun). These words are also listed among the noun markers or determiners because they are almost invariably followed by a noun (or something else acting as a noun).

The is used with specific nouns. The is required when the noun it refers to represents something that is one of a kind:

The moon circles the earth.

The is required when the noun it refers to represents something in the abstract:

The United States has encouraged the use of the private automobile as opposed to the use of public transit.

The is required when the noun it refers to represents something named earlier in the text. (See below..)

If you would like help with the distinction between count and non-count nouns, please refer to Count and Non-Count Nouns.
We use a before singular count-nouns that begin with consonants (a cow, a barn, a sheep); we use an before singular count-nouns that begin with vowels or vowel-like sounds (an apple, an urban blight, an open door). Words that begin with an h sound often require an a (as in a horse, a history book, a hotel), but if an h-word begins with an actual vowel sound, use an an (as in an hour, an honor). We would say a useful device and a union matter because the u of those words actually sounds like yoo (as opposed, say, to the u of an ugly incident). The same is true of a European and a Euro (because of that consonantal "Yoo" sound). We would say a once-in-a-lifetime experience or a one-time hero because the words once and one begin with a w sound (as if they were spelled wuntz and won).

Merriam-Webster's Dictionary says that we can use an before an h- word that begins with an unstressed syllable. Thus, we might say an hisTORical moment, but we would say a HIStory book. Many writers would call that an affectation and prefer that we say a historical, but apparently, this choice is a matter of personal taste.

For help on using articles with abbreviations and acronyms (a or an FBI agent?), see the section on Abbreviations.

First and subsequent reference: When we first refer to something in written text, we often use an indefinite article to modify it.

A newspaper has an obligation to seek out and tell the truth.

In a subsequent reference to this newspaper, however, we will use the definite article:

There are situations, however, when the newspaper must determine whether the public's safety is jeopardized by knowing the truth.

Another example:
"I'd like a glass of orange juice, please," John said.
"I put the glass of juice on the counter already," Sheila replied.

Exception:
When a modifier appears between the article and the noun, the subsequent article will continue to be indefinite:
"I'd like a big glass of orange juice, please," John said.
"I put a big glass of juice on the counter already," Sheila replied.

Generic reference: We can refer to something in a generic way by cautionusing any of the three articles. We can do the same thing by omitting the article altogether.

* A beagle makes a great hunting dog and family companion.
* An airedale is sometimes a rather skittish animal.
* The golden retriever is a marvelous pet for children.
* Irish setters are not the highly intelligent animals they used to be.

The difference between the generic indefinite pronoun and the normal indefinite pronoun is that the latter refers to any of that class ("I want to buy a beagle, and any old beagle will do.") whereas the former (see beagle sentence) refers to all members of that class.

Proper nouns: We use the definite article with certain kinds of proper nouns:

* Geographical places: the Sound, the Sea of Japan, the Mississippi, the West, the Smokies, the Sahara (but often not when the main part of the proper noun seems to be modified by an earlier attributive noun or adjective: We went swimming at the Ocean Park)
* Pluralized names (geographic, family, teams): the Netherlands, the Bahamas, the Hamptons, the Johnsons, the New England Patriots
* Public institutions/facilities/groups: the Wadsworth Atheneum, the Sheraton, the House, the Presbyterian Church
* Newspapers: the Hartford Courant, the Times
* Nouns followed by a prepositional phrase beginning with "of": the leader of the gang, the president of our club

Abstract nouns: Abstract nouns—the names of things that are not tangible—are sometimes used with articles, sometimes not:

* The storm upset my peace of mind. He was missing just one thing: peace of mind.
* Injustice was widespread within the judicial system itself. He implored the judge to correct the injustice.
* Her body was racked with grief. It was a grief he had never felt before.

Zero articles: Several kinds of nouns never use articles. We do not use articles with the names of languages ("He was learning Chinese." [But when the word Chinese refers to the people, the definite article might come into play: "The Chinese are hoping to get the next Olympics."]), the names of sports ("She plays badminton and basketball."), and academic subjects ("She's taking economics and math. Her major is Religious Studies.")

When they are generic, non-count nouns and sometimes plural count-nouns are used without articles. "We like wine with our dinner. We adore Baroque music. We use roses for many purposes." But if an "of phrase" comes after the noun, we use an article: "We adore the music of the Baroque." Also, when a generic noun is used without an article and then referred to in a subsequent reference, it will have become specific and will require a definite article: "The Data Center installed computers in the Learning Center this summer. The computers, unfortunately, don't work."

Common count nouns are used without articles in certain special situations:
idiomatic expressions
using be and go We'll go by train. (as opposed to "We'll take the train.)
He must be in school.
with seasons In spring, we like to clean the house.
with institutions He's in church/college/jail/class.
with meals Breakfast was delicious.
He's preparing dinner by himself.
with diseases He's dying of pneumonia.
Appendicitis nearly killed him.
She has cancer
(You will sometimes hear "the measles," "the mumps," but these, too, can go without articles.)
with time of day We traveled mostly by night.
We'll be there around midnight.

Principles of Choosing an Article

Choosing articles and determiners: Briefly defined, a determiner is a noun-marker: when you see one, you know that what follows is a noun or noun phrase. There is a list of such words in the table below. When you place your mouse-cursor over a word or pair of related words (such as either/neither), you will see in the right-hand frame an image describing the kinds of words that word can modify.

Zero article (see table below) means either that no article would be appropriate with that kind of noun or that that kind of noun can be used (in that context) without an article.


If you would like to see these images listed on one page, click HERE.

Notice that there is a difference between a "stressed" some or any and an "unstressed" some or any. Consider the words in ALL CAPS as shouted words and you will hear the difference between these two:

* That is SOME car you've got there!
* I don't want to hear ANY excuse!

As opposed to. . .

* We have some cars left in the lot.
* Isn't there any furniture in the living room?

In terms of the words they usually modify, the unstressed some and any do not modify singular count nouns.

Simple Present (Present Simple) - Introduction

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Posted by stev_mtl's BLOG | Posted on 00.00 | Posted in

Simple Present (Present Simple) - Introduction

Simple present is also called present simple.

Time line



The simple present expresses an action in the present taking place once, never or several times. It is also used for actions that take place one after another and for actions that are set by a timetable or schedule. The simple present also expresses facts in the present.

OTHER, ANOTHER

These words refer to something different, remaining, or additional.

They are placed before the noun.

Another is used with singular nouns.

Other with singular or plural.

* There are other jobs you could try.
* Where's the other packet of cereals?
* Is there any other bread?
* Have another cup of tea.



other and another



Other, Another and “A Whole Nuther”

So often I hear people use the word “nuther” when they mean “other”. Like in “that’s a whole nuther story.”How did this happen?

First, I don’t think that the word “nuther/nother” is being substituted for the word “other” in this expression. Rather, the word “whole” is being inserted between elements of the word another: a-whole-nother.

It could be jocular usage, or it could be an example of metanalysis:

The reinterpretation of the form of a word resulting in the creation of a new word; esp. the changing of the boundaries between words or morphological units.

Our word apron, for example, used to be napron, but speakers hearing the words “a napron” thought they were hearing “an apron.” The same thing happened with auger, adder and umpire. Working in the other direction, what we call “a newt” used to be “an ewt(e).”

Some speakers may try to “correct” a whole nuther story to the ungrammatical a whole other story with the result that the latter may become a common usage.

As to how it happened–

“A whole nuther/nother story” has caught on because people who hear it like it.

It also fits the patterns of English speech. The OED, for example, offers several uses of nother, most of them obsolete, but the word has a long history in the language.

The Old English word oþer meant “a second of two.” The merger of an (one) with other is documented from 1225.

Another is different from the other:

another refers indefinitely to any further member of a series of indeterminate extent.

the other points to the remaining determinate member of a known series of two or more.

I don’t think “a whole nuther” belongs in the speech or writing of news announcers or journalists who have a responsibility to adhere to standard usage, but its informal use in conversation doesn’t pain my grammar nerve.



Present simple

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Posted by stev_mtl's BLOG | Posted on 23.56 | Posted in

English verbs are normally known by infinitives :

ex. to work to speak to go
Positive (Subject + verb)

I work
You work

He

She works

It

We work

You work

They work

Interrogative (DO / DOES[FOR THE THIRD PERSON SINGULAR]+ SUBJECT + INFINITIVE WITHOUT TO)

Do I work

Do you work

he

Does she work

It

Do we work
Do you work

Do they work

Negative (SUBJECT + DO / DOES[FOR THE THIRD PERSON SINGULAR]+ NOT + INFINITIVE WITHOUT TO)

I do not (don’t) work

You do not (don’t) work

He

She does not (doesn’t) work

It

We do not (don’t) work

You do not (don’t) work

They do not (don’t) work

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