Personal Pronouns

• number: singular (eg: I) or plural (eg: we)
• person: 1st person (eg: I), 2nd person (eg: you) or 3rd person (eg: he)
• gender: male (eg: he), female (eg: she) or neuter (eg: it)
• case: subject (eg: we) or object (eg: us)

number	person	gender	personal pronouns
			subject	object
singular	1st	male/female	I	me
	2nd	male/female	you	you
	3rd	male	he	him
		female	she	her
		neuter	it	it
plural	1st	male/female	we	us
	2nd	male/female	you	you
	3rd	male/female/neuter	they	them

• I like coffee.
• John helped me.
  
  
• Do you like coffee?
• John loves you.
  
  
• He runs fast.
• Did Ram beat him?
  
  
• She is clever.
• Does Mary know her?
  
  
• It doesn't work.
• Can the engineer repair it?
  
  
• We went home.
• Anthony drove us.
  
  
• Do you need a table for three?
• Did John and Mary beat you at doubles?
  
  
• They played doubles.
• John and Mary beat them.

• This is our dog Rusty. He's an Alsation.
• The Titanic was a great ship but she sank on her first voyage.
• My first car was a Mini and I treated her like my wife.
• Thailand has now opened her border with Cambodia.

• If a teacher needs help, he or she should see the principal.
• If a teacher needs help, he should see the principal.
• If a teacher needs help, they should see the principal.

• It is nice to have a holiday sometimes.
• It is important to dress well.
• It's difficult to find a job.
• Is it normal to see them together?
• It didn't take long to walk here.

• It's raining.
• It will probably be hot tomorrow.
• Is it nine o'clock yet?
• It's 50 kilometres from here to Cambridge.

Demonstrative Pronouns

• near in distance or time (this, these)
• far in distance or time (that, those)

	near	far
singular	this	that
plural	these	those

• This tastes good.
• Have you seen this?
• These are bad times.
• Do you like these?
  
  
• That is beautiful.
• Look at that!
• Those were the days!
• Can you see those?
  
  
• This is heavier than that.
• These are bigger than those.

Possessive Pronouns

• number: singular (eg: mine) or plural (eg: ours)
• person: 1st person (eg: mine), 2nd person (eg: yours) or 3rd person (eg: his)
• gender: male (his), female (hers)

• be subject or object
• refer to a singular or plural antecedent

number	person	gender (of "owner")	possessive pronouns
singular	1st	male/female	mine
	2nd	male/female	yours
	3rd	male	his
		female	hers
plural	1st	male/female	ours
	2nd	male/female	yours
	3rd	male/female/neuter	theirs

• Look at these pictures. Mine is the big one. (subject = My picture)
• I like your flowers. Do you like mine? (object = my flowers)
  
  
• I looked everywhere for your key. I found John's key but I couldn't find yours. (object = your key)
• My flowers are dying. Yours are lovely. (subject = Your flowers)
  
  
• All the essays were good but his was the best. (subject = his essay)
• John found his passport but Mary couldn't find hers. (object = her passport)
• John found his clothes but Mary couldn't find hers. (object = her clothes)
  
  
• Here is your car. Ours is over there, where we left it. (subject = Our car)
• Your photos are good. Ours are terrible. (subject = Our photos)
  
  
• Each couple's books are colour-coded. Yours are red. (subject = Your books)
• I don't like this family's garden but I like yours. (subject = your garden)
  
  
• These aren't John and Mary's children. Theirs have black hair. (subject = Their children)
• John and Mary don't like your car. Do you like theirs? (object = their car)

Interrogative Pronouns

	subject	object
person	who	whom
thing	what
person/thing	which
person	whose		(possessive)

question	answer
Who told you?	John told me.	subject
Whom did you tell?	I told Mary.	object
What's happened?	An accident's happened.	subject
What do you want?	I want coffee.	object
Which came first?	The Porsche 911 came first.	subject
Which will the doctor see first?	The doctor will see the patient in blue first.	object
There's one car missing. Whose hasn't arrived?	John's (car) hasn't arrived.	subject
We've found everyone's keys. Whose did you find?	I found John's (keys).	object

• Whoever would want to do such a nasty thing?
• Whatever did he say to make her cry like that?
• They're all fantastic! Whichever will you choose?

Simple Past
FORM

[VERB+ed] or irregular verbs

Examples:

* You called Debbie.
* Did you call Debbie?
* You did not call Debbie.

Complete List of Simple Past Forms
USE 1 Completed Action in the Past

Use the Simple Past to express the idea that an action started and finished at a specific time in the past. Sometimes, the speaker may not actually mention the specific time, but they do have one specific time in mind.

Examples:

* I saw a movie yesterday.
* I didn't see a play yesterday.
* Last year, I traveled to Japan.
* Last year, I didn't travel to Korea.
* Did you have dinner last night?
* She washed her car.
* He didn't wash his car.

USE 2 A Series of Completed Actions

We use the Simple Past to list a series of completed actions in the past. These actions happen 1st, 2nd, 3rd, 4th, and so on.

Examples:

* I finished work, walked to the beach, and found a nice place to swim.
* He arrived from the airport at 8:00, checked into the hotel at 9:00, and met the others at 10:00.
* Did you add flour, pour in the milk, and then add the eggs?

USE 3 Duration in Past

The Simple Past can be used with a duration which starts and stops in the past. A duration is a longer action often indicated by expressions such as: for two years, for five minutes, all day, all year, etc.

Examples:

* I lived in Brazil for two years.
* Shauna studied Japanese for five years.
* They sat at the beach all day.
* They did not stay at the party the entire time.
* We talked on the phone for thirty minutes.
* A: How long did you wait for them?
B: We waited for one hour.

USE 4 Habits in the Past

The Simple Past can also be used to describe a habit which stopped in the past. It can have the same meaning as "used to." To make it clear that we are talking about a habit, we often add expressions such as: always, often, usually, never, when I was a child, when I was younger, etc.

Examples:

* I studied French when I was a child.
* He played the violin.
* He didn't play the piano.
* Did you play a musical instrument when you were a kid?
* She worked at the movie theater after school.
* They never went to school, they always skipped class.

USE 5 Past Facts or Generalizations

The Simple Past can also be used to describe past facts or generalizations which are no longer true. As in USE 4 above, this use of the Simple Past is quite similar to the expression "used to."

Examples:

* She was shy as a child, but now she is very outgoing.
* He didn't like tomatoes before.
* Did you live in Texas when you were a kid?
* People paid much more to make cell phone calls in the past.

IMPORTANT When-Clauses Happen First

Clauses are groups of words which have meaning but are often not complete sentences. Some clauses begin with the word "when" such as "when I dropped my pen..." or "when class began..." These clauses are called when-clauses, and they are very important. The examples below contain when-clauses.

Examples:

* When I paid her one dollar, she answered my question.
* She answered my question when I paid her one dollar.

When-clauses are important because they always happen first when both clauses are in the Simple Past. Both of the examples above mean the same thing: first, I paid her one dollar, and then, she answered my question. It is not important whether "when I paid her one dollar" is at the beginning of the sentence or at the end of the sentence. However, the example below has a different meaning. First, she answered my question, and then, I paid her one dollar.

Example:

* I paid her one dollar when she answered my question.

Present Perfect
FORM

[has/have + past participle]

Examples:

* You have seen that movie many times.
* Have you seen that movie many times?
* You have not seen that movie many times.

Complete List of Present Perfect Forms
USE 1 Unspecified Time Before Now

We use the Present Perfect to say that an action happened at an unspecified time before now. The exact time is not important. You CANNOT use the Present Perfect with specific time expressions such as: yesterday, one year ago, last week, when I was a child, when I lived in Japan, at that moment, that day, one day, etc. We CAN use the Present Perfect with unspecific expressions such as: ever, never, once, many times, several times, before, so far, already, yet, etc.

Examples:

* I have seen that movie twenty times.
* I think I have met him once before.
* There have been many earthquakes in California.
* People have traveled to the Moon.
* People have not traveled to Mars.
* Have you read the book yet?
* Nobody has ever climbed that mountain.
* A: Has there ever been a war in the United States?
B: Yes, there has been a war in the United States.

How Do You Actually Use the Present Perfect?

The concept of "unspecified time" can be very confusing to English learners. It is best to associate Present Perfect with the following topics:
TOPIC 1 Experience

You can use the Present Perfect to describe your experience. It is like saying, "I have the experience of..." You can also use this tense to say that you have never had a certain experience. The Present Perfect is NOT used to describe a specific event.

Examples:

* I have been to France.
This sentence means that you have had the experience of being in France. Maybe you have been there once, or several times.
* I have been to France three times.
You can add the number of times at the end of the sentence.
* I have never been to France.
This sentence means that you have not had the experience of going to France.
* I think I have seen that movie before.
* He has never traveled by train.
* Joan has studied two foreign languages.
* A: Have you ever met him?
B: No, I have not met him.

TOPIC 2 Change Over Time

We often use the Present Perfect to talk about change that has happened over a period of time.

Examples:

* You have grown since the last time I saw you.
* The government has become more interested in arts education.
* Japanese has become one of the most popular courses at the university since the Asian studies program was established.
* My English has really improved since I moved to Australia.

TOPIC 3 Accomplishments

We often use the Present Perfect to list the accomplishments of individuals and humanity. You cannot mention a specific time.

Examples:

* Man has walked on the Moon.
* Our son has learned how to read.
* Doctors have cured many deadly diseases.
* Scientists have split the atom.

TOPIC 4 An Uncompleted Action You Are Expecting

We often use the Present Perfect to say that an action which we expected has not happened. Using the Present Perfect suggests that we are still waiting for the action to happen.

Examples:

* James has not finished his homework yet.
* Susan hasn't mastered Japanese, but she can communicate.
* Bill has still not arrived.
* The rain hasn't stopped.

TOPIC 5 Multiple Actions at Different Times

We also use the Present Perfect to talk about several different actions which have occurred in the past at different times. Present Perfect suggests the process is not complete and more actions are possible.

Examples:

* The army has attacked that city five times.
* I have had four quizzes and five tests so far this semester.
* We have had many major problems while working on this project.
* She has talked to several specialists about her problem, but nobody knows why she is sick.

Time Expressions with Present Perfect

When we use the Present Perfect it means that something has happened at some point in our lives before now. Remember, the exact time the action happened is not important.

Sometimes, we want to limit the time we are looking in for an experience. We can do this with expressions such as: in the last week, in the last year, this week, this month, so far, up to now, etc.

Examples:

* Have you been to Mexico in the last year?
* I have seen that movie six times in the last month.
* They have had three tests in the last week.
* She graduated from university less than three years ago. She has worked for three different companies so far.
* My car has broken down three times this week.

NOTICE

"Last year" and "in the last year" are very different in meaning. "Last year" means the year before now, and it is considered a specific time which requires Simple Past. "In the last year" means from 365 days ago until now. It is not considered a specific time, so it requires Present Perfect.

Examples:

* I went to Mexico last year.
I went to Mexico in the calendar year before this one.
* I have been to Mexico in the last year.
I have been to Mexico at least once at some point between 365 days ago and now.

USE 2 Duration From the Past Until Now (Non-Continuous Verbs)

With Non-Continuous Verbs and non-continuous uses of Mixed Verbs, we use the Present Perfect to show that something started in the past and has continued up until now. "For five minutes," "for two weeks," and "since Tuesday" are all durations which can be used with the Present Perfect.

Examples:

* I have had a cold for two weeks.
* She has been in England for six months.
* Mary has loved chocolate since she was a little girl.

Although the above use of Present Perfect is normally limited to Non-Continuous Verbs and non-continuous uses of Mixed Verbs, the words "live," "work," "teach," and "study" are sometimes used in this way even though they are NOT Non-Continuous Verbs.

Simple Present
FORM

[VERB] + s/es in third person

Examples:

* You speak English.
* Do you speak English?
* You do not speak English.

Complete List of Simple Present Forms
USE 1 Repeated Actions

Use the Simple Present to express the idea that an action is repeated or usual. The action can be a habit, a hobby, a daily event, a scheduled event or something that often happens. It can also be something a person often forgets or usually does not do.

Examples:

* I play tennis.
* She does not play tennis.
* Does he play tennis?
* The train leaves every morning at 8 AM.
* The train does not leave at 9 AM.
* When does the train usually leave?
* She always forgets her purse.
* He never forgets his wallet.
* Every twelve months, the Earth circles the Sun.
* Does the Sun circle the Earth?

USE 2 Facts or Generalizations

The Simple Present can also indicate the speaker believes that a fact was true before, is true now, and will be true in the future. It is not important if the speaker is correct about the fact. It is also used to make generalizations about people or things.

Examples:

* Cats like milk.
* Birds do not like milk.
* Do pigs like milk?
* California is in America.
* California is not in the United Kingdom.
* Windows are made of glass.
* Windows are not made of wood.
* New York is a small city. It is not important that this fact is untrue.

USE 3 Scheduled Events in the Near Future

Speakers occasionally use Simple Present to talk about scheduled events in the near future. This is most commonly done when talking about public transportation, but it can be used with other scheduled events as well.

Examples:

* The train leaves tonight at 6 PM.
* The bus does not arrive at 11 AM, it arrives at 11 PM.
* When do we board the plane?
* The party starts at 8 o'clock.
* When does class begin tomorrow?

USE 4 Now (Non-Continuous Verbs)

Speakers sometimes use the Simple Present to express the idea that an action is happening or is not happening now. This can only be done with Non-Continuous Verbs and certain Mixed Verbs.

Examples:

* I am here now.
* She is not here now.
* He needs help right now.
* He does not need help now.
* He has his passport in his hand.
* Do you have your passport with you?

Present Continuous
FORM

[am/is/are + present participle]

Examples:

* You are watching TV.
* Are you watching TV?
* You are not watching TV.

Complete List of Present Continuous Forms
USE 1 Now

Use the Present Continuous with Normal Verbs to express the idea that something is happening now, at this very moment. It can also be used to show that something is not happening now.

Examples:

* You are learning English now.
* You are not swimming now.
* Are you sleeping?
* I am sitting.
* I am not standing.
* Is he sitting or standing?
* They are reading their books.
* They are not watching television.
* What are you doing?
* Why aren't you doing your homework?

USE 2 Longer Actions in Progress Now

In English, "now" can mean: this second, today, this month, this year, this century, and so on. Sometimes, we use the Present Continuous to say that we are in the process of doing a longer action which is in progress; however, we might not be doing it at this exact second.

Examples: (All of these sentences can be said while eating dinner in a restaurant.)

* I am studying to become a doctor.
* I am not studying to become a dentist.
* I am reading the book Tom Sawyer.
* I am not reading any books right now.
* Are you working on any special projects at work?
* Aren't you teaching at the university now?

USE 3 Near Future

Sometimes, speakers use the Present Continuous to indicate that something will or will not happen in the near future.

Examples:

* I am meeting some friends after work.
* I am not going to the party tonight.
* Is he visiting his parents next weekend?
* Isn't he coming with us tonight?

USE 4 Repetition and Irritation with "Always"

The Present Continuous with words such as "always" or "constantly" expresses the idea that something irritating or shocking often happens. Notice that the meaning is like Simple Present, but with negative emotion. Remember to put the words "always" or "constantly" between "be" and "verb+ing."

Examples:

* She is always coming to class late.
* He is constantly talking. I wish he would shut up.
* I don't like them because they are always complaining.

REMEMBER Non-Continuous Verbs/ Mixed Verbs

It is important to remember that Non-Continuous Verbs cannot be used in any continuous tenses. Also, certain non-continuous meanings for Mixed Verbs cannot be used in continuous tenses. Instead of using Present Continuous with these verbs, you must use Simple Present.

Examples:

* She is loving this chocolate ice cream. Not Correct
* She loves this chocolate ice cream. Correct

Frame Relay merupakan layanan jasa jaringan komunikasi data dengan teknologi Frame switching yang berkecepatan tinggi untuk menghubungkan satu atau beberapa lokasi ke berbagai lokasi tujuan (point to multi point) baik di dalam ataupun luar negeri.Koneksi LAN to LAN dengan berbagai aplikasi voice, multimedia, video conference dan aplikasi berbasis client-server / telnet / terminal emulation dengan sentralisasi database yang mencakup

1. File transfer
2. Email
3. Web Intranet
4. Data entry
5. Pengendalian persediaan
6. Payment point
7. Corporate Internet dedicated

Aplikasi transaksional dan interaktif yang mencakup:

1. Online antar cabang
2. Reservasi hotel/tiket pesawat

Jaringan Frame Relay

 1.Topology Star atau disebut Hub and Spoke topology

Catatan: secara default router Cisco melakukan autosensing jenis LMI yang dipakai dan melakukan konfigurasi sesuai jenis LMI seperlunya.  Anda perlu melakukan setting LMI jika router gagal melakukan autosensing atau anda perlu melakukan setting manual.

Yang berikut adalah step untuk konfigurasi jaringan Frame relay:

Cisco command	Keterangan
Router (config-if) # encap frame	Enable jaringan frame relay dan setting metoda “encapsulation type”
Router (config-if) # ip address 10.0.0.1 255.0.0.0	Memberikan suatu address network layer pada interface yang dipilih
Router (config-if) # frame inverse-arp Atau melakukan static address Router (config-if) # frame map ip 10.0.0.3 100	Enable inverse-arp (jika kondisi ‘disable’) atau melakukan pemetaan manual ke nomor DLCI
Router (config-if) # frame lmi-type cisco Router (config-if) # keepalive 9	Konfigurasi jenis LMI

Konfigurasi serial sub-interface: Point-to-Point
Untuk melengkapi interface Point-to-Point anda bisa melakukan step berikut:

Cisco command	Keterangan
Router (config-if) # encap frame	Enable jaringan frame relay dan setting metoda “encapsulation type”
Router (config-if) # int s0.1 point	Membuat sub-interface pada serial s0 dan memberikan identitas  interface Point-to-point
Router (config-subif) # ip address 11.0.0.1 255.0.0.0	Memberikan address network layer
Router (config-subif) # frame interface-dlci 100	Konfigurasi jenis addressing static ataupun dynamic

Catatan: untuk sub-interface Point-to-Point ataupun sub-interface multi-point dengan addressing dynamic, anda juga harus memberikan suatu nomor DLCI pada sub-interface.

Konfigurasi sub-interface Multi-point
Step berikut adalah konfigurasi jaringan frame relay serial sub-interface multi-point

Cisco command	Keterangan
Router (config-if) # encap frame	Enable jaringan frame relay dan setting metoda “encapsulation type”
Router (config-if) # int s0.100 multipoint	Membuat sub-interface dan mengidentifikasikan interface multipoint.
Router (config-subif) # ip address 13.0.0.1 255.0.0.0	Memberikan address network layer
Router (config-subif) # frame interface-dlci 300 Atau konfigurasi static address Router (config-subif) # frame map ip 13.0.0.3 300	Konfigurasi static ataupun dynamic addressing (DLCI untuk untuk inverse-arp)

Catatan: untuk sub-interface point-to-point atau multi-point dengan dynamic addressing, anda harus juga memberikan DLCI number pada sub-interface.

Konfigurasi jaringan frame relay back-to-back
Pada seksi sebelumnya dijelaskan router connect pada jaringan frame relay yang sudah ada dan router di konfigurasi sebagai DTE dengan DCE nya adalah frame relay switch di jaringan Telkom penyedia frame relay di central office. Anda bisa configure Cisco router sebagai DCE dalam suatu scenario jaringan frame relay back-to-back untuk keperluan testing.
Lengkapi step berikut untuk konfigurasi dua router yang dihubungkan back-to-back menggunakan jaringan frame relay.
1.       Hubungkan kedua router dengan kabel yang benar, gunakan kabel DTE pada satu router dan kabel DCE untuk kabel router satunya atau gunakan saja suatu kabel DTE/DCE crossover cable.
2.      Pada modus interface, set “clock rate” pada interface router yang berfungsi sebagai DCE.
3.      Lengkapi konfigurasi item-2 berikut untuk setiap interface yang terhubung.
a.      Enable jaringan frame relay dan set metoda “encapsulation”
b.      Berikan addressing network layer
c.       Matikan “keep-alive” interval
d.      Petakan address pada DLCI (gunakan DLCI yang sama untuk keduanya) atau berikan DLCI number pada interface (gunakan DLCI yang sama untuk keduanya)
Command-2 berikut digunakan untuk konfigurasi kedua router untuk setiap interface terhubung.

RouterD (config) # int s0

RouterD (config-if) # encap frame

RouterD (config-if) # ip address 10.0.0.1 255.0.0.0

RouterD (config-if) # no keepalive

RouterD (config-if) # frame map ip 10.0.0.2 100

RouterD (config-if) # clock rate 56000

RouterE (config) # int s0

RouterE (config-if) # encap frame

RouterE (config-if) # ip address 10.0.0.2 255.0.0.0

RouterE (config-if) # no keepalive

RouterE (config-if) # frame map ip 10.0.0.1 100

Anda juga bisa menggantikan command berikut untuk command frame-relay map untuk kedua router Frame-relay interface-dlci 100

Cara monitoring jaringan frame relay
Seteah jaringan frame relay sudah diconfigure, anda bisa menggunakan beberapa command untuk memonitor atau melihat konfigurasi jaringan frame relay anda pada router. Sebagai tambahan command #show run, gunakan command-2 berikut untuk melihat informasi jaringan frame relay.

Jika anda ingin melihat	Gunakan command berikut
DLCI numbers	Show run Show frame pvc
Frame relay network encapsulation method	Show int Show run
Interface configuration (DCE or DTE)	Show frame pvc Show int
LMI information and traffic statistics	Show frame lmi Show int
Global traffic statistic	Show frame traffic
Addresses and associated DLCIs	Show frame map

X.25 Protocol

Adalah standar jaringan packet switching yang disetujui pada 1976 oleh CCITT (sekarang ITU). Standar ini mendefinisikan layers 1, 2, and 3 Model Referensi OSI.

Pada 1970 an ada banyak jaringan telekomunikasi publik yang dimiliki oleh perusahaan, organisasi dan pemerintahan yang saling berbeda satu sama lain sehingga diperlukan protocol yang lebih umum untuk menggabungkan semua standar industri tersebut.

Pada 1976 X.25 direkomendasikan sebagai protocol yang dimaksud oleh The International Consultative Committee for Telegraphy and Telephony (CCITT) sekarang International Telecommunication Union (ITU) sejak 1993.

X.25 adalah packet switched data network protocol yang mendefinisikan secara internasional bagaimana cara melakukan data exchange dan information control antara user device (host), disebut Data Terminal Equipment (DTE) dan network node, disebut Data Circuit Terminating Equipment (DCE).

X.25 adalah Connection Oriented service yang memastikan paket ditransmisikan berurutan.

X.25 mengacu pada tiga layer pertama Open Systems Interconnection(OSI) dalam arsitektur 7 Later yang ditetapkan oleh International Standard Organization (ISO).

1. Physical Level adalah interface secara fisik. Sesuai dengan Physical Layer pada OSI model
2. The Link Level bertanggung jawab terhadap komunikasi antara DTE dan DCE. Sesuai dengan Data Link Layer pada OSI model
3. The Packet Level mendeskripsikan data transfer protocol pada packet switched network. Sesuai dengan Network Layer pada OSI model.

X.25 disetujui pada 1976 dan direvisi pada 1977, 1980, 1984, 1988 and 1992. Saat ini digunakan sebagai interfaces data communication networks terluas di seluruh dunia.

Packet Switching

Adalah protocol yang mengatur data dibagi menjadi sejumlah paket sebelum dikirimkan. Setiap paket akan dikirimkan terpisah dan dapat melalui saluran (routing) yang berbeda. Setelah semua paket dapat diterima oleh host tujuan, protocol menyusun kembali sehingga bisa ditampilkan utuh seperti semula.

Sebagian besar Wide Area Network (WAN) protocol modern, termasuk TCP/IP, X.25 dan Frame Relay, berbasis teknologi packet switching. Sedangkan layanan telepon umumnya berbasis jaringan teknologi circuit switching.

Umumnya dedicated line dialokasikan untuk transmisi antara dua pihak. Circuit switching ideal untuk kondisi dimana data harus dikirim secepatnya dan harus sampai dengan urutan yang sama. Misalnya untuk real time data (live audio dan video). Packet switching lebih efisien untuk jenis data yang dapat mentoleransi transmisi yang tertunda dan terpisah (tidak bersamaan) seperti misalnya e-mail dan Web.

Teknologi yang lebih baru, ATM, mengkombinasikan keduanya. Mampu memberikan garansi akurasi seperti jaringan circuit switched dan efisiensi dari jaringan packet switching.

Kesimpulan

X.25 adalah protocol telekomunikasi jaringan packet switched yang sampai saat ini masih sangat banyak dipergunakan di seluruh dunia. Salah satu aplikasinya adalah Frame Relay. Jaringan ini merupakan satu protocol utama akses Internet di seluruh dunia.